Everything you wanted to know about
Canada!
Education
Educational systems in Canada derive from British, American, and—particularly in the province of Québec—French traditions. Students in Québec are taught in French unless specific conditions apply, for example, if their parents were taught in an English-language school in Québec. English is the principal language of instruction in other provinces and the territories, but there are exceptions. Many of New Brunswick’s schools are French-language schools, reflecting the high proportion of French Canadians in the province as well as the official policy of bilingualism there.French immersion programs, where students are taught almost completely in French, are also popular in many parts of the country.
Administration
The earliest Canadian schools date from the early 17th century
and were conducted by French Catholic religious groups. Higher education began
in 1635 with the founding of the Collège des Jésuites in the city of Québec.
It was not until the transfer of Canada from French to British jurisdiction in
1763 that an educational system began to emerge that augmented church schools
with secular public schools and private schools. When the dominion was created
in 1867, education was defined as a provincial responsibility, and it has
remained so ever since.
Copyright 2007 © All rights reserved. Designed By: Mays Domat
There is no central ministry of education in Canada. The federal government steps in only for special populations outside normal provincial jurisdiction, such as inmates of federal prisons, the families of Canada’s armed forces, and indigenous peoples on reserves. Increasingly, indigenous groups are acquiring more control over their local educational programs.
Although education is administered by government, churches frequently play an integral role in its delivery. Church-run schools that are alternatives to the secular system of elementary and secondary schools exist in all provinces and territories. Typically these schools receive state funding if they agree to teach the regular curriculum; in addition, they offer extra language and/or religion courses.
The vast, sparsely settled areas of Canada present special problems in delivering education. Initially, governments and religious groups established residential schools, especially for indigenous children, but these were never popular. The indigenous peoples saw them as a way for white society to dominate indigenous cultures. Eventually these schools were closed. A less centralized system emerged, which increasingly has been augmented with correspondence programs and more recently with educational television and teleconferencing. Some of the more successful distance education technologies, such as those developed by the Knowledge Network in British Columbia, have been exported to other provinces and countries.
Canadian educators are increasingly occupied with the issue of funding current education programs while budgets are shrinking. In 1995 all governments combined spent C(Canadian)$43.9 billion (US$32.3 billion) on education, which was 12.2 percent of total expenditures and 5.6 percent of Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP). Almost all provincial governments have adopted deficit reduction strategies that make money increasingly less available for schools.
At the same time, schools must meet a number of demands. Many schools are faced with large numbers of immigrant children requiring language training. In Toronto and Vancouver, the two cities with the greatest ethnic diversity in Canada, more than half of all students in the regular school system did not learn English as their first language. In poor neighborhoods, the schools provide free or subsidized meals to many children. Schools are also facing a demand for sophisticated and expensive technological training to equip students for the future. At the individual school level, parents are demanding and receiving a greater say in policy making and program choices. In response, provincial governments have attempted to deliver education services more efficiently by consolidating school districts and collaborating with other provinces.
Literacy
By world standards, Canada has a high literacy rate. Complete illiteracy—the inability to read or write at all in any language—is very rare in Canada, probably only about 2 percent of the adult population. However, there is a greater level of functional illiteracy—the inability to read well or to understand what is read. According to a survey conducted in 1989 by Statistics Canada, about 16 percent of adult Canadians find it very difficult to read a simple printed text. Another 22 percent can read but tend to avoid it. A 1994 study showed slightly worse results. Illiteracy is more likely to be found among the elderly and poor of Canada. Programs to combat illiteracy are offered by the National Literacy Secretariat, which promotes and supports organizations dedicated to adult literacy training.
Elementary and Secondary Schools
Education is compulsory for children from age 6 or 7 to age 15 or 16, depending on the province they live in, and it is free until the completion of secondary school studies. Participation in the school system is almost universal; in the 1993 to 1994 school year, 98.9 percent of all children of compulsory school age were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. After the period of mandatory education is completed, participation decreases. Some 68.4 percent of all students graduate from secondary school.
In the early 1990s Canada maintained 19 special schools for the blind and the deaf. These institutions together enrolled about 2400 pupils, who were instructed by some 575 teachers. Canada had several schools for mentally handicapped children.
Universities
Canada’s large universities were established in the 19th century, beginning with McGill University in 1821. Since World War II, higher education has expanded. Many new institutions have been founded, and the older universities have increased in size, scope, and influence. The federal and provincial governments fund the university system in Canada, including sectarian institutions, and students pay only a small portion of the cost. Universities are still the predominant institutions offering higher education, but the number of nonuniversity postsecondary institutions, particularly community colleges, has increased sharply in recent decades.
Nursing education, formerly concentrated at special schools attached to hospitals, has been transferred to universities and community colleges, which numbered 203 in the early 1990s. Similarly, teacher training has been shifted from specialized institutions to universities.
In the early 1990s Canada had 69 degree-granting universities and colleges, which together enrolled some 572,900 full-time students. Since then, one new university has been built in northern British Columbia, and a number of former community colleges are in the process of becoming universities. Among the country’s larger universities are the following: the University of Alberta (1906) and the University of Calgary (1945), in Alberta; the University of British Columbia (1908) and Simon Fraser University (1963), in British Columbia; the University of Manitoba (1877); the University of Moncton (1864) and the University of New Brunswick (1785), in New Brunswick; Memorial University of Newfoundland (1925); Acadia University (1838) and Dalhousie University (1818), in Nova Scotia; Carleton University (1942), McMaster University (1887), the University of Ottawa (1848), the University of Toronto (1827), the University of Waterloo (1957), and York University (1959), in Ontario; the University of Prince Edward Island (1969); Concordia University (1974), Laval University (1852), McGill University (1821), the Université de Montréal (1876), and the University of Québec (1968) in Québec; and the University of Saskatchewan (1907).
Way of Life
The complex regional and cultural composition of Canadian
society means that there is no single Canadian way of life, but certain
generalizations can be made. Perhaps the clearest is that Canada shares with the
United States, most European countries, and Japan a high standard of living
relative to the remainder of the world. Most Canadians are well housed, fed, and
clothed. Canadians also enjoy an advanced, efficient health care system that is
universally available to all citizens and landed immigrants (immigrants who are
allowed permanent residence in the country) regardless of their location,
income, or social standing. In fact, recent opinion polls have shown that
Canadians see this system of socialized medicine as a defining characteristic of
their national identity.
Generally, Canadians devote the highest portion of their income to housing (22 percent of household expenditures in 1992). Most (63 percent) own their homes, and the majority (57 percent) reside in single-family detached homes. Housing quality is generally high, and only about 1 percent live in units defined by government agencies as crowded. However, housing quality is not as high in rural and northern areas as it is in Canada’s cities. Problems are especially prevalent on Indian Reserves (lands set aside for Status Indians);; in 1991, some 39 percent of all dwellings on Indian Reserves required major repairs as opposed to a national average of 8 percent. Housing in the Arctic region poses special problems; permafrost can cause foundations to shift and makes providing water and sanitary services difficult. Frequently, aboveground insulated utility systems are the only feasible solution.
The nature of Canadian households has changed considerably over the past quarter-century. With the liberalization of divorce legislation in the late 1960s and changing social attitudes about marriage, the number of single-parent households and common-law unions has increased.
Canadian eating habits are also being transformed. Concern for better health has led to a small decline in total meat consumption; Canadians are also spending more on fruits, vegetables, pasta, and other complex carbohydrates. Canadians, especially those in the larger cities, have also acquired more cosmopolitan tastes. The range of foods and beverages available is far greater than ever before, and includes dishes from Ethiopia, Thailand, Latin American, and a variety of Chinese regions. Still, many traditional regional eating habits have been retained, such as the distinctive diets of the Inuit and other indigenous groups, and the French-influenced cuisine of Québec.
Although lacrosse was Canada’s first national game, hockey is its most popular. At the professional level, there are six National Hockey League teams in Canada, including two of its most venerable, the Montréal Canadiens and the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Canadian Football League was created in 1956. Baseball has been played in Canada since at least 1838, and a Canadian professional league was established in 1876. The Montréal Expos became Canada’s first major league team in 1969. The Toronto Blue Jays were formed eight years later and have become one of the most successful major league teams, attracting more than 4 million fans in a single season (1992) and winning the world series twice. Two Canadian teams joined the National Basketball Association in the 1990s: the Toronto Raptors and the Vancouver Grizzlies.
Amateur sport also thrives, and Canada consistently produces Olympic medal winners in a variety of sports, such as rowing, track and field, and, most notably, figure skating (for example, Elvis Stojko). The most famous of these Olympic winners in recent years was Donovan Bailey, who won the 100-meter sprint at the 1996 games. Ordinary Canadians are participating in sporting leagues, fitness classes, and individual exercise to a greater extent than ever before. In the 1991 census, one-third of all Canadians reported that they were “very active” in some form of sport or exercise.
Social Issues
Poverty
While Canada is affluent by world standards, approximately one
in seven Canadian families lives below the level of income deemed necessary to
provide a decent standard of living. The most commonly cited measure of poverty
in Canada is the one used in the annual Statistics Canada survey. Statistics
Canada defines low income based on the share of income an average person or
family devotes to food, clothing, and shelter needs. Adjustments are made for
family size and for rural or urban location. By this standard in 1994, 13.5
percent of families and 40.6 percent of unattached individuals were deemed to
have low incomes. Among families, low income was especially prevalent in
single-parent households. The families of single mothers were particularly
likely to have low incomes, and about 18 percent of Canada’s children were
living in families with low incomes. Just under half (48 percent) of poor
families relied on welfare for their income, while the remainder were classified
as the working poor. Among single people, elderly people, especially elderly
women, were likely to have low incomes.
Incomes are also considerably below normal among indigenous peoples in Canada, who earn less than half the Canadian average. While Ottawa has special responsibility for indigenous people, the reserves have some of Canada’s worst social conditions. There, poor housing and chronic unemployment are a way of life for many. Among indigenous peoples, suicide is closely linked to the problems associated with poverty, such as alcohol abuse, family violence, and family disintegration. In some communities where these problems are especially acute, the rate is more than 10 times the national average. Suicide has become the leading cause of death among indigenous teenagers and young adults. Poverty underlies indigenous peoples’ struggles for land and self-government.
Poverty is also prevalent in cities. However, while each Canadian city has its skid row of bars, rooming houses, and relief agencies, there are few large areas of poverty. In fact, many declining neighborhoods have been redeveloped for middle-class residents in recent years. Government-funded housing projects have also been dispersed throughout most of the larger metropolitan areas, rather than concentrated. As a result, poverty rates in many suburbs are no longer appreciably different than in urban core areas.
Crime
The issue of crime is highly visible in the Canadian media. In 1995 there were 995 violent crimes (attacks on the person, abduction, and robbery), 5237 crimes against property, and 2.0 homicides per 100,000 Canadians. In comparison, in the early 1990s the homicide rate was 0.6 in Japan, 0.9 in Great Britain, 9.9 in the United States, and 17.2 in Mexico. Generally, the rate of violent crimes other than murder has risen over the past ten years, while the rates of murder and property crimes have slightly declined.
Concern about crime was heightened in 1989 when a man used an assault rifle to murder 14 women enrolled in the engineering program at the ةcole Polytechnique in Montréal. More stringent gun control legislation was proposed soon after the incident but did not become law until 1995. The new legislation, currently being implemented, bans a number of assault weapons, further limits the legal use of handguns, and requires that all handguns and rifles in Canada be registered. These regulations have drawn vocal public criticism from rural areas and certain lobby groups but are widely supported by the general population. The number of violent crimes involving firearms declined about 7 percent in Canada in 1995, after being stable for some years, but it is unclear whether any of this drop is attributable to the new law.
Arts
Canada is a relatively young country and is still forging a cultural identity that is distinct from those of its European founding nations and the United States. Establishing a national culture is made difficult by a strong tendency within Canada toward regional forms of cultural expression. Furthermore, many different cultures must be accommodated within the national identity. Thus it is more appropriate to speak of Canadian cultures rather than a single national culture.
Indigenous Art
The indigenous peoples had a rich artistic tradition long before European colonization. Many native forms of expression, such as dance, woodcarving, soapstone sculpture, and decorative handicrafts, were highly developed and are still practiced. The artistic power of indigenous art, with its strong attachment to nature and spiritual values, has had a great impact on post-colonial Canadian culture and remains an important element today. A recent renaissance of indigenous art is exemplified by the sculptures by Bill Reid of the Haida nation, which have been shown around the world. Inuit carvings are highly valued by collectors and critics alike.
Colonial Art
In the colonial period, culture was heavily influenced by French and British models. Colonists brought their culture with them and tried to reproduce it in the new land. Simplified and practical versions of European styles of architecture, craftsmanship, and music date from this period. Colonists were also confronted by new landscapes and new peoples, producing a strong urge to describe and portray these. Thus colonial writing and painting about Canada were largely documentary, including explorers’ accounts of their travels, missionaries’ reports, and naturalistic portrayals of landscapes and ways of life. Typical of these are Cornelius Krieghoff’s paintings of the Saint Lawrence valley in the 1840s, Paul Kane’s paintings of the Métis people, and Susannah Moodie’s literary descriptions of pioneer life. All of this early art was infused by European sensibilities.
Nationalism and Government Support
After Canada became a nation in 1867, a new nationalist sentiment appeared in public art. The country’s history and institutions became the subject of monumental and heroic artworks. Prominent examples include the architecture of the Parliament buildings built in 1867 and the National Gallery of Canada constructed in 1880; sculptures on historical monuments and war memorials; and paintings such as The Fathers of Confederation, painted by Robert Harris in 1883. The Confederation Poets of the late 19th century tried to show that Canadian topics, such as the plight of the indigenous peoples, could be the subject of poetry. However, most artistic expression in Canada was still dominated by by European models. Québec artists in particular, such as poet Louis Honoré Fréchette, strove to maintain and promote French culture in the face of English dominance. French-language literature, music, and painting tended to celebrate the rural and religious values of the Québec people. The culture of other regions also often expressed a strong sense of place. Such small-town attitudes were the subject of humorous works by essayist Stephen Leacock.
A real break from tradition and regionalism came in the 1920s, when the Group of Seven introduced revolutionary new techniques and concepts to painting, as well as a strong commitment to a national perspective. The Group rebelled against the conservative art then being produced in Canada and shifted emphasis away from slavish imitation of nature toward bold, colorful expressiveness. Also at this time Emily Carr in British Columbia was painting nature in a new personal style that expressed the themes of the Pacific landscape and was strongly influenced by the Northwest coast style of indigenous art.
In the postwar period from the 1940s through the 1960s, Canadian culture truly began to expand and respond to new influences, such as the media theories of the University of Toronto’s Marshall McLuhan and the liberation manifesto of the Automatistes, a group of painters, writers, and dancers in Québec. McLuhan stimulated interest in the use of multiple media, which engage all the senses to create what he called “mosaic patterns” of meaning. Renewed nationalism was also a factor as Canadians began to channel government funds to invest in their own culture. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, founded in 1936, provided a forum for artists across the country. The Canada Council was established in 1957 to fund artistic endeavors and became a crucial agent in supporting creativity. Support for Canadian culture has also come from such prizes as the Governor General’s Literary Awards, instituted in 1936. The film industry was nurtured by the National Film Board of Canada, an advisory board that became a producer of highly acclaimed short films, and by Telefilm Canada, a producer of feature-length films. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) regulates the broadcast media and has fostered Canadian popular music by requiring that it receive a certain minimum amount of airtime. Programs to support the Canadian publishing industry were also implemented in the postwar period.
The result of these initiatives was an explosion of artistic opportunities. New ballet and modern dance companies emerged, including the National Ballet of Canada in 1951; theatrical festivals were established, particularly the Stratford and the Shaw; and new orchestras and music festivals were created. Support for the arts continued through the 1980s but began to decline in the 1990s. In total, state funding for culture in Canada was C$5.9 billion in 1991, but was reduced to C$5.8 billion in 1993 and 1994 and continues to decline.
