Everything you wanted to know about
Canada!
People
The population of Canada was 28,846,761 in 1996, compared to
27.3 million in 1991. The growth rate from 1991 to 1996 was 1.14 percent per
year; this is the fourth highest rate among the 27 countries in the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which corresponds roughly
to
the most developed industrial countries of the world. Half of this growth is due
to immigration. Canada’s liberal immigration program accepts newcomers from
nearly every other country in the world.
Most Canadians live in cities, and most of the cities are close
to the southern border. The largest urban centers are in Québec and Ontario
provinces, or central Canada, where some two-thirds of the people
live. Most
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of the population is ethnically British or French, although other European countries are well represented, and indigenous peoples are the majority in the north. French and English are the official languages, although the people who speak English as their mother tongue outnumber those whose mother tongue is French by 2-1/2 to 1. Roman Catholics, who include most French-speaking people, are the most numerous religious group, followed by the United Church of Canada and the Anglican Church. Immigrants are a growing minority, particularly those from Asia, and have been changing the face of Canada’s largest urban areas.
Canadians have a high literacy rate and a number of fine
universities. The standard of living is one of the world’s highest, although
one in seven households is poverty stricken. Violent crime is low compared to
other North American societies, but has been rising.
Population Characteristics
Demographic Trends
Canada is a nation of people who came from somewhere else. All but the indigenous people arrived within the past 400 years, most within the past few generations. For that reason most Canadians still feel some attachment to their old homelands. The majority of the population is of European descent, but the proportion of Asians is increasing. About half of all immigrants in the decade from 1981 to 1991 came from Asia, and Chinese is the fastest-growing mother tongue in Canada. As ethnic groups intermarry, however, ethnic identities are becoming more blurred; 29 percent of Canadians report more than one ethnic origin. Indigenous peoples make up about 3 percent and blacks about 2 percent of the population.
Immigration is important to maintaining Canada’s population. The current childbearing generation has smaller families than earlier generations: the fertility rate (average number of children born per woman) is 1.7, less than the population replacement rate of 2.1. At the same time, older people are living longer, so that the average age of the population is higher. In 1996 Canada’s natural increase was about 164,000, resulting from a birth rate of 12.7 per 1000 and a death rate of 7.2 per 1000. There is a downward trend in the birth index—in 1981 it was 15.3—and the likely end result will be zero growth or population loss. For this reason the Canadian government decided in the 1980s to compensate for the low birth rate by allowing more immigration.
Distribution of Population
Although Canada has a very low population density of just over 3
persons per sq km (8 persons per sq mi), this is a misleading statistic.
Actually the population is highly concentrated, with about three-quarters of all
Canadians living within 320 km (200 mi) of the U.S. border. Canadians are
further concentrated into about 25 metropolitan areas. The 1996 census showed
59.6 percent living in such areas, and a total of 77.9 percent living in all
urban areas. The percentage of urban dwellers has remained relatively stable
since 1971.
There is also a regional dimension to population distribution in Canada. In 1996 almost two-thirds of the people, 62 percent, were concentrated in Québec and Ontario. Nearly all of the rest lived in the other eight provinces: 17 percent in the Prairie provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan; about 8 percent in the Atlantic provinces of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick; and about 13 percent in British Columbia. Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories were sparsely inhabited, with only about 0.3 percent of the total population.
During the last quarter of the 20th century, the Canadian population has been shifting westward. British Columbia and Alberta have been beneficiaries of this movement and have enjoyed growth rates well above the Canadian average. However, Ontario has continued to be the most populous and economically vibrant province.
Population Centers
The largest urban centers of Canada are found mostly in the southern parts of Ontario and Québec. They are ranked according to the population of their Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs). A CMA is a geographic area that contains the main labor market of an urban zone; that is, the area from which at least 25 percent of the residents commute to work at jobs in the core built-up area. As of 1996 the largest CMAs in Canada were as follows. Toronto, Ontario (4,263,757), is the country’s leading financial and manufacturing center and one of the most ethnically varied cities in the world; its local government provides services in some 70 languages. Montréal, Québec (3,326,510), a major manufacturing and commercial center, is the world’s largest French-speaking city outside France. Vancouver, British Columbia (1,831,665), is a scenic, rapidly growing commercial, transportation, and forest-products manufacturing center. Ottawa, Ontario, the hub of the Ottawa-Hull metropolitan area (1,010,498), is the national capital and an emerging center of high-technology research. Edmonton, Alberta (862,597), a petroleum and farming center, is the capital of Alberta and site of the West Edmonton Mall, one of the world’s largest indoor malls. Calgary, Alberta (821,628), is the headquarters of Canada’s petroleum industry and an important farm trade center. Québec City (671,889), founded in 1608, is the capital of Québec province, with a well-preserved center that has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage site. Winnipeg, Manitoba (667,209), is a major wheat market and railroad hub. Hamilton, Ontario (624,360), is the principal center of Canadian steel production. London, Ontario (398,616), is an industrial and commercial city. Kitchener, Ontario (382,940), is a manufacturing center that forms the hub of Canada’s “technology triangle.” St. Catharines, Ontario, in the St. Catharines-Niagara metropolitan area (372,406), is a center of agricultural and industrial production. Halifax, Nova Scotia (332,518), is a seaport and the economic center of the Atlantic region.
Languages
Canada is officially bilingual, and all services provided by the federal government are available in English and French. The selection of Ottawa as the national capital, located on the Ontario-Québec border, reflects the long-standing political and cultural importance of the two founding nations. The 1991 census reported that 98 percent of Canadians have at least some ability to speak one of the official languages and that 16 percent of Canadians are fluently bilingual. The majority speak English: 62 percent reported English as their mother tongue in 1991, while 25 percent reported French and 13 percent a nonofficial language. The most prevalent nonofficial languages in Canada are, in order of prominence: Italian, German, Chinese, and Spanish.
The indigenous peoples spoke dozens of different languages, and many are still spoken today. Almost all fall into groups of related languages traceable from a common ancestral tongue. The largest such group is the Algonquian; Cree, an Algonquian language, is spoken by 94,000 people and is today’s most significant indigenous language in Canada. Other large groups are Dene (also called Athapaskan), Iroquoian, Siouan, Salishan, Wakashan, Tsimshian, and Eskimo-Aleut. There are also three indigenous languages of British Columbia—Kootenay, Haida, and Tlingit—that are not clearly related to any other known tongue.
Ethnic Groups
Ethnic Composition
The ethnic composition of the Canadian people is diverse. The two largest groups, those of British and French origin, comprise respectively about 35 and 25 percent of the population. The majority of French Canadians live in Québec, where they make up about 80 percent of the population. Significant numbers also live in Ontario and New Brunswick. The remaining French Canadians are thinly scattered through the rest of Canada, but there are a few concentrations, such as the Saint Boniface district of Winnipeg, which is home to some 45,000 French speakers.
While French Canadians form a cultural group, based on their language, history, and religion, British Canadians do not. The four nations of the British Isles—English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish—all had different histories, belonged to various religions, and developed different attitudes. While an economic elite of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, mostly of English and Scots background, has dominated the business and industry of every province, even Québec, they are a minority of British Canadians.
About 20 percent of Canadians trace their ancestry to other European countries; the most prominent of these are Germany, Italy, Ukraine, and the Netherlands. Another 8 to 10 percent are of Asian origin, particularly from Hong Kong, India, China, and Taiwan. The remainder of the population is of various ethnic origins, such as American, Latin American, and African.
Many of these groups have settled in uneven geographic patterns. For example, Canadian immigration policy focused on Europeans during the early 20th century, a time of vigorous western settlement; as a result, the proportion of European Canadians in the Prairie Provinces is especially high. More recently, Asian immigration has coincided with the growth of the largest metropolitan centers—Toronto, Montréal, and Vancouver—and thus Chinese Canadians and Indo-Canadians are most visible there.
French Canadians
Four-fifths of French Canadians live in Québec province. Many,
if not most, of them regard Québec as the center of their society and culture,
and their effort to preserve it has led to a movement of French Canadian
nationalism that has taken several forms. Surrounded by an English-speaking
society and living in an economy dominated by an English-speaking elite, the Québécois
(French-speaking residents of Québec) made a concerted effort beginning in 1960
to increase their control of Québec affairs. A nationalist provincial
government revamped the educational system, provided aid to small businesses,
and took control of some industries, all with the objective of increasing Québécois’
control of the economy. Many nationalists have gone further: some support a
separatist movement that seeks independence for the province; others advocate a
more moderate alternative, keeping Québec in Canada but giving it more powers
than the other provinces. The English-speaking minority in Québec is opposed to
its separation from Canada. The other provinces also oppose it and are not much
more sympathetic to the more moderate alternative.
Both the Parti Québécois, the party elected in 1993 to govern Québec, and the Bloc Québécois, the party elected the same year to represent it in Canada’s Parliament, are officially dedicated to separation. This situation has intensified the historical mistrust between French-speaking and English-speaking Canadians, a legacy from the time when English speakers identified Canada with their own interests (see Canada: Laurier). Emphasis on French Canadian culture and aspirations has also damaged the Québécois’ relations with other minorities in the province. Among these are indigenous peoples, who have lately begun to assert their own rights. One Cree leader has stated that if Québec secedes from Canada, the Cree will secede from Québec.
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous peoples make up about 3 percent of Canada’s
inhabitants. They live across Canada in every province and territory, generally
on reserves set aside for them, but also in cities. In the Arctic and
sub-Arctic, where the climate has discouraged permanent European settlement,
they are the majority. They divide themselves into nations, each with a
traditional territory, language, and culture. The groupings and homelands have
changed over time. For example, the Bearlake only became a nation in the 20th
century; the Neutral and several neighboring nations were broken up in the 17th
century; and the Sioux
did not arrive in Canada until the 19th century.
The federal Indian Act recognizes four categories of indigenous people: Status Indians, who are registered on an official roll; Inuit; Métis, people of mixed European and indigenous heritage; and non-Status Indians, people of indigenous descent who are not on the official roll. For administrative purposes, indigenous peoples in Canada are also divided according to band. A band is the smallest indigenous political unit; there are about 600 bands in Canada, corresponding roughly to local indigenous communities.
The indigenous peoples speak many different languages, engage in different cultural processes, pursue economic well-being in diverse ways, and have created a variety of governing systems. Yet they have historically shared many characteristics and conditions of life. The land continues to have social and cultural significance for a large proportion of them. Their relation to the land has not been well understood by European Canadians.
Land and resource development has had social costs for indigenous people, particularly those living in the north. In the first place, it often destroys fragile physical environments. With the loss or reduction of traditional hunting and fishing lifestyles comes damage to indigenous identities and self-esteem. Furthermore, the economic benefits of development mostly accrue to developers rather than local people. Even where indigenous Canadians have negotiated a share in the profits, economic benefits tend to be only temporary while the social problems associated with a rapid influx of people and money are often of longer duration.
Tensions have sometimes erupted into violence. The most serious confrontations have occurred in Oka, Québec, and Gustafson Lake, British Columbia, where armed standoffs with police lasted many days. Smaller incidents, such as blockades across access roads to resource sites, are becoming more common. Problems are generally related to disagreements over land use and ownership. The situation is unlikely to improve until land negotiations between governments and indigenous peoples are complete.
The Canadian government, through the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND), administers the Indian Act and other legislation relating to Status Indians. The Department is responsible for meeting the federal government’s treaty obligations, negotiating with Status Indian communities regarding increased autonomy for these communities, supporting indigenous people’s economic development and self-sufficiency, and negotiating with them to resolve their land claims.
DIAND has begun transferring to indigenous reserves the responsibility of managing their own affairs. These communities now control 77 percent of all funding from Indian and Inuit Affairs, one of the four programs within DIAND. The program provides funds for housing; education; economic development; child, family, and adult care services; and other social services, including initiatives to prevent family violence and substance abuse.
Since 1986 the Canadian government has negotiated with indigenous communities to develop self-government. As of March 1993, two such communities, the Cree-Naskapi of Québec and the Sechelt Band of British Columbia, are self-governing in the sense that they have their own local political entities, which have municipal status and are accountable to an indigenous electorate. This model, however, is not accepted by all indigenous peoples. Some indigenous organizations have demanded a much broader set of powers that would recognize their inherent right to be self-governing, independent of the jurisdiction of the provinces.
In November 1992 Ottawa and the Inuit of the eastern Arctic signed a comprehensive agreement to resolve outstanding grievances. This agreement also authorizes the new territory of Nunavut to be created in 1999 from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories. About 80 percent of the people are Inuit (Nunavut is the Inuit word for “our land”), and Nunavut will be the first large political unit in North America with an indigenous majority. It will be governed by its own legislative assembly, territorial court, and civil service.
Blacks
Blacks, or African Canadians, have never been a major segment of the population, but their history is interesting. Although King Louis XIV of France in 1689 authorized the importation of slaves from the West Indies, few were brought to Canada or Acadia. Some refugees from the American Revolution (1775-1783) brought slaves north with them, and a greater number of blacks came as free persons, many of them having won their freedom by fighting for the British side in that conflict. Nova Scotia abolished slavery in 1787, as did Upper Canada (Ontario) six years later; their actions set precedents for the British Empire. When British troops burned Washington, the U.S. capital, in the War of 1812 (1812-1815), they brought back to Halifax many slaves who had sought refuge with them. Escape to Canada meant freedom, and thus it was a major destination of the so-called Underground Railroad, a network of secret routes by which U.S. abolitionists (people who actively opposed slavery) spirited slaves out of the American South. They transported many slaves into Canada, particularly to Chatham and Sarnia in Ontario.
Blacks in Canada have generally been equal under the law, although Nova Scotia and Ontario formerly had legally segregated public schools, and the schools for blacks were often poorly funded. Traditionally, blacks have been employed in jobs that pay low wages. They remain among the poorest and worst educated of Canada’s citizens. Since an upsurge of civil rights activism in the 1960s, blacks have pressed for improvement of their condition, and their leadership has been enhanced by the addition of educated black immigrants from the Caribbean and Africa. Recently, urban black communities have protested police tactics in Toronto, Montréal, and Halifax, asserting that the police discriminate against them.
Immigrants
Immigrants
account for about 16 percent of the population, and immigration has been a key
force in Canada’s growth since the beginning of the colonial era. For most of
post-colonial history, people of European descent were favored. This practice
was replaced in the 1960s by new rules classifying immigrants into three groups:
refugees fleeing political persecution, family members of Canadian citizens, and
independent immigrants. The latter are admitted under a point system, where they
are allocated points for level of education, experience in the labor market,
facility in one or both official languages, and so on. Those with enough points
are allowed to become permanent residents and, three years later, Canadian
citizens. Just under half (49 percent) of immigrants arriving in 1994 were in
the independent category, while 42 percent were joining family members and 9
percent were fleeing political persecution.
The people entering Canada reflect the distribution of the world’s population. During the 1980s, for example, 47 percent of the 1.3 million immigrants came from Asian countries, 26 percent from Europe, 12 percent from South America or the Caribbean, 9 percent from North and Central America, and 6 percent from Africa. The top ten source countries (in order) in 1995 were Hong Kong, India, the Philippines, China, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, England, the United States, and Pakistan. Migration from Hong Kong has been especially prominent during the 1990s, accounting for 15 to 20 percent of all immigrants to Canada in most years. This movement was related to the widespread concern in Hong Kong over the return of the colony to China in 1997.
Ottawa is required to consult the provinces each year on immigration policy. Ottawa is also required to set an annual target figure for immigration, although it has been common in recent years to plan in five-year stages. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, targets were set at 250,000, or nearly 1 percent of the Canadian population, per year. Following the recession of the early 1990s, however, these were lowered to 210,000 per year. Still, this is an addition of 0.7 percent to the population per year, compared with 0.3 percent in the United States.
Arriving immigrants require settlement services. These are provided by provincial and municipal governments and a variety of nongovernmental organizations. Much of the funding for these programs comes from the federal government. Services include temporary accommodation, language classes, and employment counseling. In 1996 Ottawa imposed a landing fee of C$975 on each adult immigrant to help pay the cost of the immigration program. The merits of this new head tax have been much debated.
The overwhelming majority of newcomers settle in cities, which has altered the ethnic compositions of Toronto, Montréal, and Vancouver. Each of these cities has a different immigrant profile: persons arriving from French-speaking countries are most likely to settle in Montréal, those from Latin America in Toronto, and those from the Pacific Rim in either Toronto or Vancouver. Certain resources in these cities have become strained, particularly the school system. It is common, for example, for entire elementary classrooms in some parts of Vancouver to consist of recent immigrants from Asian countries. Beyond the cost of providing instructional programs in English as a second language, these cities are faced with the challenge of integrating diverse cultures. A number of problems have arisen, such as immigrants’ complaints of discrimination. Although some Canadians have pressured the government to cut back the annual immigration target, immigration is generally well supported.
In response to requests by various cultural groups, the Canadian government established a multicultural policy in 1971 that recognizes the changing composition of the Canadian population. This policy was intended to acknowledge the contribution of all groups that make up Canada and to signal that there is no official culture into which everyone is expected to assimilate. In 1972 a new position was added to the federal cabinet: the minister of state for multiculturalism. The federal Human Rights Act, passed in 1977, made discrimination on the basis of race, nationality, or ethnic origin illegal. In 1982 these rights were included in the new constitution, and in 1986 a program was established to ensure that minorities have equal access to federal employment.
Religion
Most Canadians are Christians (83.3 percent in the 1991 census), although a rapidly growing number have no religious affiliation (12.5 percent). The remainder practice non-Christian Eastern religions, Judaism, indigenous traditions, or other forms of belief such as the New Age Movement. The Roman Catholic Church is by far the largest single denomination, representing 45.2 percent of the Canadian population in the 1991 census; approximately half of Roman Catholics live in Québec. The great majority of French Canadians are Roman Catholics. The next two largest denominations in 1991 were the United Church of Canada, formed in the 1920s through a merger of Methodists, Congregationalists, and most Presbyterians (11.5 percent), and the Anglican Church (8.1 percent). Other significant religions in Canada were Baptist (2.5 percent); Presbyterian (2.4 percent); Lutheran (2.4 percent); Pentecostal (1.6 percent); Jewish (1.2 percent); Islamic (1 percent); Greek Orthodox (1 percent); and Mennonite (1 percent). Immigration from eastern and southern Asia in recent years has also brought increasing numbers of Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs.
Most religious groups are widely distributed across Canada, but some communities are concentrated in specific areas. For example, the Mennonites, the Hutterites, and the Ukrainian Orthodox are mainly located in the Prairie Provinces, the majority of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) reside in Alberta, most Hindus live in Toronto, and most Sikhs live in Vancouver. In each of these cases, religious communities have created visible landscapes that add to the distinctiveness and variety of Canadian places. In Vancouver, for example, there are several Sikh temples that are each large enough to accommodate more than 1000 at a service. The Vancouver area also has two thriving Indo-Canadian shopping areas that specialize in traditional products of the Punjab, the district in India where Sikhism originated.
